Recommending you the highly rated Carbon Offsets Providers

1. Highest level of verification and project types - atmosfair

Summary: Germany, Non-profit, US$ 34 per tonne, 80% cost-efficiency; all CDM projects -biogas, hydro and solar, and two are Gold Standard)
Suitable for: air-travel carbon offsetting ( the only service they provide so far).

2. Highest performance/price ratio - Carbon Offsets Ltd.

Summary: UK, for-profit, US$ 20 for CDM, US$7 for VER; 2 projects in total: wind and energy efficiency.
Suitable for: individual offsets: home, vehicles, flight and also business.

3. Highest cost-efficiency - PURE

Summary: UK, non-profit, US$ 22 per tonne, at least 100% to projects; 4 CDM projects, of which one is Gold Standard.
Suitable for: UK residents because the calculations are based on UK situation, especially good for annually carbon budgeting, for house, vehicles, flights.

4. Most promising and lowest price - Carbonfund.org

Summary: US non-profit, US$ 5.5/tonne, 12 projects, wind, solar, biogas, reforestation, energy efficiency,etc.
Suitable for: Having the intention of offsetting while thinking of paying a lower price.

Here are the providers which I consider they are good, at least among the best of all the providers; my major criteria are the project types, cost-efficiency, verification, and price. Below are the details about my findings, after researching 75 carbon offsets providers.

1. The price of carbon offsets from companies will not usually higher than those from non-profit organisations, mostly depending on project types. But almost all the companies will mix the projects which have higher verification (eg. CDM) with the lower standard ones to sugar what they have and obviously compromise the price. For example, the CarbonNeutral Ltd. have 28 projects in total, of which only 2 are CDM projects, but they boast a lot on how credible their projects are and push their price as high as US$ 21.15 (21 Feb 2008, ECB).

2. As for the cost-efficiency report, only 11 out of 47 companies have it, with an average of 70%, which means if you pay US$100 for the credits, 70 will get into the project. For non-profit ones, 14 out of 28 have the cost-efficiency reports, on average 84% of you money will flow to projects.

3. Not all of the non-profit providers are as good as they seem, some of them are the branches of a certain corporate group; sometimes their websites are not convenient for customers and have less options than the for-profit counterparts.

联合国催促利用碳金融帮助贫穷农民 UN agency to help poor farmers attract carbon finance

［摘要］农业发展国际基金（IFAD) 正在建立帮助贫穷国家农民吸引碳市场投资的机制。总计5亿美元的贷款和基金将被用于促进粮食生产中的可持续发展，IFAD正寻求一个全新的机会来减缓农业活动排放，并支持希望获得联合国认证的碳信用额的贫穷国家。可以通过农业废弃物发电，比如沼气和秸秆燃烧等；或者是植树造林／恢复退化地等活动。不过他们也道出了其中的困难。

首先，目前的 京都议定书 虽然建立了清洁发展机制CDM来减缓温室气体排放，又促进发展中国家的可持续发展；但是涉及到农业项目减排，首要问题是项目往往很小，需要打包之后才能进行交易，这无疑增加了操作和论证的复杂性，同时又牵扯到过多的利益相关方。

其次， 防止毁林或造林／再造林会产生不少的信用额，并保护当地的环境，但是联合国并不情愿批准这样的项目，同时最大的买家欧洲国家不允许使用这样的碳信用额。

The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is looking to set up a mechanism to help farmers in poor countries attract investments from the carbon market, an official told Point Carbon in an interview ... IFAD now sees new opportunities in mitigating emissions that stem from farming, and wants to support the efforts of countries wishing to sell UN-endorsed carbon credits, according to Atiqur Rahman, policy coordinator with the agency.

One of the problems with attracting carbon finance to agricultural projects in developing countries is that they are often small, which meant they had to package the projects. "Poor countries need to bulk projects and make them more sellable," he said. "It is an interesting prospect which can yield benefit for poor countries." As an example of projects in the farming sector that could generate credits, Rahman mentioned producing electricity from waste by collecting biogas and burning it.

The largest potential for slashing greenhouse gas emissions from farming would come from more avoided deforestation, said Rahman. More efficient farming would reduce the pressure for deforestation, a major source of emissions globally. However, attracting carbon finance to projects that seek to avoid deforestation could prove difficult, as the UN has been reluctant to award carbon credits to such projects, and the biggest source of demand – EU companies – are not allowed to use such credits.
Source:PointCarbon

航空业的排放 GHGs emissions from aviation sector

[摘要]整个交通行业当前的温室气体排放将近占世界总排放的14%，在电力和土地利用部门的后面，但是和农业活动排放有着相同的排放比例。此外，交通业排放在世界经合组织里是增长最快的（1990-2002），在非经合组织增长第二快，增速分别是25% and 36%。交通排放的大头在公路交通（76%），航空业次之（12%）。

航空业占全球二氧化碳总排放的比例在不同来源有不同的数字，例如IPCC(1999)的计算结果是2%，WRI(2005)的报告称是2%，在2050要增至3%。但是如果考虑进去非二氧化碳效应，这个数字要翻2-4倍。虽然现在航空排放远低于电力能源行业和汽车排放，但是考虑到航空业的增长速度以及技术瓶颈，它的排放在所有交通行业是增长最快的，在过去的二十年中年增长速度是9%，据估计在2010年后，这个增长速度还会维持甚至继续扩大。到2050航空业的排放会是2005年的3倍，而公路交通为2倍。意味着如果现在不采取行动，一味的扩大民用航空器的数量，整个行业的排放将会占越来越大的比例。同时，象中国这样的崛起发展中国家，增长速度甚至会更快，现在的年平均增幅在14%左右，而且在未来的二十年增速也会维持在10%以上，尤其是国际航线方面增幅更快。

此外，在不同的情景分析中（senario analysis)中，现实情况不容乐观，英国，德国，以及澳大利亚的分析表明，如果按中等增速，最可能的情景，航空排放在2050年会占英国和德国总排放的40%左右，会占澳大利亚的10%。

因此，了解中国的现在排放和未来的情景分析应该是很有意义的，尤其是在西方的压力以及自身节能目标下，它对国家的气候变化方案的制定以及在国际谈判中的博弈都很必要。

Contribution of aviation sector to CO2 emissions

Transport sector accounts for around 14 % of total human-induced GHGs emissions in the world, behind power generation and land use sectors, with the same ratio as the agriculture sector. Transport was the fastest growth sector of GHGs emissions between 1990 and 2002 in OECD countries and the second fastest in non-OECD countries, with the increase of 25% and 36%, respectively (Stern, 2006). The major contributions to transport are from road transport (76%) and aviation (12%), and the carbon dioxide emissions from aviation are 0.7 billion tonnes per year, accounting for 1.6 percent of GHGs emissions (WRI, 2005). While according to IPCC (1999), aviation contributes 2% of the global CO2 emissions and it would increase to 3% by 2050; if taking into account the non-CO2 effects of aviation , this figure would account for around 5% of total warming in 2050 (IPCC, 1999).

Although the emissions are not that extensive as those from power generation or vehicles, enough attention should be paid to avoid the over-expansion of aviation sector, because civil aviation traffic has increased dramatically with an average annual growth rate of 9% in the past decades. From 2010, it is expected to expand further by 5% per year, among all modes of transportation, aviation has been considered as the fastest growing sources of GHGs both in the developed and developing world; between 2005 and 2050, the CO2 emissions are expected to triple over the period, in comparison to the double of road transport emissions (Stern, 2006). If taken into account the non-CO2 effects associated with aviation, the aviation emissions will be 2 to 4 times larger as mentioned.

高处的果子 Fruits hanging high

我们现在面临很多可以减少温室气体排放的方法，不论是碳平衡层级（carbon neutral hierarchy）的哪个尺度，达到碳平衡都应该走两条路，如前所述：一是通过改变现有的碳排放方式，一是抵消经过努力后仍然存在的那部分排放。

总结起来如下：
路透社的这篇报道指出，提高能效无疑有巨大的潜力，也比较容易看到效果，尤其是在中国这样的发展中大国；本身的基础较差起点较低，能效提高空间很大。不过同时，也有研究人员也举了个例子：‘触手可及的果子固然吸引人，但是我们仍然不要忘记高处还有更多更好的’。提醒我们如何保持现有的势头并找寻其它更有效的减排方式。

这种看法当然是对的，分析问题固然要从正反两方面看。

UNITED NATIONS (Reuters) - Squeezing more productivity out of the energy that industries, homes and vehicles burn is the most economical way to stifle rising energy demand and control output of planet-warming gases, according to a new report from the McKinsey Global Institute.

For decades, many countries have mostly invested in finding more supplies of oil, gas and coal to meet the rising energy needs of growing populations, but as energy costs and global warming concerns rise, interest in investing in ways to slow energy demand is beginning to take hold.

"We've identified huge opportunities to reduce energy demand and carbon emissions through improved efficiency," Diana Farrell, the director of the MGI, said in an interview.

Slowing global energy waste at industries like pulp and paper, oil refining and steel, homes and cars could more than halve global energy demand growth from current levels of 2.2 percent a year, according to the report, "The Case for Investing in Energy Productivity," released by the MGI on Thursday at a United Nations Investor Summit on Climate Risk.

Initial global investments would total about $170 billion per year. But they would pay for themselves through energy savings, with an average internal return rate of 17 percent, the report said.

Industries would need to invest about $83 billion per year, homes would need to invest about $40 billion and transport and commercial sectors will need to invest $25 billion and $22 billion a year, respectively.

Less burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas as a result of the efficiencies would cut greenhouse gas output, the report said.

Getting companies to change their energy habits, however, is no easy task.

"The vast majority of global executives say fixing global warming problems can boost profits," said Farrell. "But few are acting on the opportunities."

John Holdren, a climate expert at Harvard University, told investors efficiencies can be helpful in slowing global warming, but that much more needs to be done, such as developing new fuels and methods to bury carbon emissions, to stop catastrophic consequences such as flooding from rising seas.

"The low-hanging fruit is wonderful, but we need to reach higher still," he said.

来源Source 路透社 Reuters

全球第一个黄金标准CDM项目 The first Gold Standard CDM project

［摘要］这个项目是在印度，利用燃烧农业废弃物发电, 4.5 MW 的发电厂。产生14.5 万吨二氧化碳当量。多个机构联合开发，现由瑞士南极碳资产管理公司进行市场操作，2006年成功在UNFCCC EB注册，2007年春天第一笔CER签发，是世界上第一个经过黄金标准认证的CDM项目。

更多关于这个项目可参见 South Pole Carbon Ltd.

About this Carbon Offset Project

Project name: Malavalli Biomass Power Plant (The 4.5 MW biomass power project)
Summary: Recycling of superfluous agricultural waste to produce electricity and heat. Use biomass available in the region as an efficient fuel for the production of energy.
Location: Kirugaval village, Malavalli Taluka, Mandya District, Karnataka, India
Type: Burning Agricultural Residue
Quantity: 145,000 tons CO2e
Offset period: 7 years
Operator: Malavalli Power Plant Pvt Ltd.

Certification: Kyoto Clean Development Mechanism CDM Gold Standard

Source Carbon Catalog

如何选购碳信用额 To select and purchase carbon offsetting credits

其实购买碳信用额来补偿个人的二氧化碳排放很简单，只需要登陆这些组织或公司的网站即可；目前全球大概有75个主流提供商在网上提供交易，主要集中在欧洲和北美外加澳大利亚和新西兰，中国（包括香港，澳门和台湾省）目前还没有提供商，原因：一是 中国没有温室气体减排责任；一是 中国的个人减排市场可能很小，不吸引投资人的眼球。

购买步骤一： 寻找提供商

这个过程看似简单，实则复杂。现拿WWF中国提到几个碳信用额提供商网站作为例子来分析，
1. AtmosFair
非营利性组织，德国，33.89美元／吨二氧化碳（(Feb 21 rates from ECB，下同)
有三个减排项目：泰国的废水处理甲烷气回收；洪都拉斯水电；印度太阳能。

优点： 付出效率（cost-efficiency） 高，你80％的钱会流入到这些项目中；项目的审核标准高，都是CDM项目

缺点：目前只提供飞行减排；而且价格偏高，大概人民币250元一吨，短途飞行可以接受 例如，北京首都机场－上海虹桥机场（单程），1065km，0.1吨二氧化碳（CarbonNeutral 计算器）。长距离北京直飞伦敦单程要0.9吨，8156 km。如果不是直飞，外加转机，往返，可能是笔不小的开支。

2. Climate Friendly
营利性公司，澳大利亚，21.13美元／吨，
有两个可更新能源项目，都是风电的，一个在中国一个在土耳其。

优点：提供车辆，飞机，居家生活以及商业减排；项目的审核认证标准高，都是CDM项目

缺点：项目较少，而且种类单一；付出效率不高67％

3. MyClimate
非营利性组织，瑞士，36.65美元／吨。
目前共7个项目：3个生物质能发电，甲烷气回收，太阳能，风能，水电项目各一。分布在印度，南非，印尼，马达加斯加和瑞士。

优点：付出效率高，80％；项目的审核标准高，都是CDM项目，而且还有黄金标准项目；项目数量多，种类多，而且交易时可以选择。

缺点：价格，基本属于整个行业内最高的几个之一；提供车辆，飞机，居家生活减排，此外，还有购买零散碳信用额选项，就是你指定多少吨它就可以卖你多少吨。

4. NativeEnergy
营利性，美国，13.23 美元／吨。
目前有14个项目，全在美国，6个风电，6个农业废弃物甲烷气回收，一个垃圾填埋甲烷气回收，和一个太阳能项目。

优点：价格适中；项目种类多

缺点：没有付出效率报告；项目审核认证不清楚；项目来源单一，都在美国。

这几个例子仅仅是几个代表，还有很多性价比更高的可以选择，见网页右侧链界。
但是通过这些例子可以知道大概选择的原则有：

项目类型；项目认证；项目归属地；价格；网站操作难易；付款类型等

你可以根据自己的情况来选择不同的提供商，例如你飞行国内比较多而且不在乎银子，那么你就满可以选择价高但可信赖度更高更透明的MyClimate，因为花费不会离谱；但如果你国际飞行多，经济上捉襟见肘，那么你满可以选CarbonFund。

总之，没有十全十美的供应商和项目，所以我们要有自己的原则，我们有这样的减排意识就已经是在为地球的气候做贡献，起码我们不是负担；但反过来说，人们的这种心理愉悦程度应该和我们所选的碳补偿可信度，透明度等等相联系的。你可以经过调查自己选择一个机构，也可以接受我的推荐，通过那些我认为的性价比较高的公司来购买碳补偿。

步骤二 ： 网上交易

你可以通过卖碳网站上的提示（几乎没有中文的），来选择要进行进行碳补偿的活动，即飞行，驾车，生活，商业，甚至个人婚礼活动等；然后网站会帮助你计算出当前活动的排放量，以及如果进行碳补偿需要购买碳信用额的价格；这里还要说明，如果你试过了几家网站就会知道，他们的计算方法千差万别，也就是说同一段路程会有不同的减排量，因此，建议交易前还是要比较两三家看看到底差别有多大。选择付款方式，进行最后交易。

步骤三：证书

碳信用额提供商会提供证书来证明你确实进行了这次碳补偿活动，有电子证书，有时还有纸制或礼品证书。

是的，个人减排？！ Yes, individual carbon offsetting?!

[摘要]每个地球公民，作为抗争全球变暖的最基本单元，需要行动起来了；我们不能完全指望政府的宏观政策，相关的碳排放交易体系不是唯一的解决方法，现有的 京都议定书 下的碳减排量仅是全球总排放的区区5%。我们如果在这个概念用层级方式表示：

碳平衡层次 Carbon neutral hierarchy:
地球 ——> 国家 ——> 城市 ——> 组织 ——> 家庭 ——> 个人

所以我们可以依赖于国家等待TOP DOWN（自上而下）的效果逐渐显现，但是现在的关键问题是我们可以继续等待么？我们最长能容许等待多久？相比较，BOTTOM UP（自下而上）的行动会不受时间和空间甚至政治的限制，虽然意识过程会比较漫长，但是铺散开后减排力量是巨大的，而且现在的快捷通讯已经能让个人在碳排放补偿方面马上进行行动。

这种自下而上的方法对中国来说尤其适用。因为中国的特殊情况决定了这条路是近期的一个较好选择。说到中国，虽然是京都议定书签约国，但归属于非附件一（Non-Annex I）集团，意味着并不需要承担象附件一国家 （Annex I）那样的减排责任。但是，另一方面中国的绝对排放量已经在去年超越美国成为世界第一排放大国。

但是对于每个公民来说，并不是因为中国没有减排的压力我们就不采取行动，在中国的排放对全球变暖的影响和在纽约的排放是完全相同的，我们不能因为国家没有减排的责任就让自己的减排意识模糊。不仅如此，政府也一再给人民错误的信号，比如在去年巴厘岛气候变化大会，中国代表会拿现在较低的人均排放跟其他国家讨价还价。同时，我们的政府也在强调我们的总排放是将近四分之一来自于中国的贸易顺差，即出口产品造成，这对可持续消费观念的养成是十分不利的。国家层面的这些反应，让我们觉得我们确实有权力排放，于是对于减缓气候变化的态度是过于乐观或盲目悲观。我们不能仅仅被当作这种交易的筹码，每个中国人都是较低人均排放的一分子。

政府应该给人民一个积极的减排讯号，那些工业节能减排项目确实是减少二氧化碳排放的主力，但引导人们认识自己也可以进行节能减排。例如，现在英国的总排放中有40%以上是来自于个人活动，主要是家庭能源使用和个人交通排放。虽然中国的居民排放应该远小于西方国家，因为家用电器和私人汽车的使用比例仍很低，尤其是在大多数人口居住的农村地区。不过由于中国的人口基数和更快的增幅，这个比例也不会低到哪去（准备要计算）。

同时政府应该确保这个信号应该让能负担得起高排放的城市人口意识到，他们的排放是高于全国平均水平的，他们有义务进行减排，这种想法应该是对社会公平性养成至关重要的。而且也能被大众接受，就像现在的个人所得税一样，根据收入多寡来分级，不也是褒大于贬么？至于具体采取什么措施能让城市高排放人口意识到这一点而愿意掏腰包购买碳信用额是很关键的。其实促成这种能源消费和生活方式的改变，说难也不难；尤其是在中国现在的政治体制下。就是怎样的疏通好中国政府和大型的工业企业和交通业例如民航公司发展之间的平衡是先决条件。

怎样让人们意识到个人节能减排的好处可能是关键（这里的减排是指减少二氧化碳排放，而不是国家十一五计划中的减排，那里是指二氧化硫，氮氧化物等污染物的减排；这点要首先区分清楚）。

1. 节能减排是一种社会责任
低碳社会是未来的发展趋势，公民的提前参与会让这种社会的到来更有社会基础。不过当前的问题是谁该负担起这样的责任，中国的碳排放有很强的区域性，在个人层次也是如此。城市中/高等收入人口日常活动是个人碳排放的主要来源：家用电器，私家车，取暖制冷，乘坐飞机等等，这是生活在农村的人不能企及的，目前仍然有58.7%的人居住在农村（2006世行数据），这个比例虽然已经较1980年（80.4%)降低了很多，但是如果计入城市低收入人口，低排放人口比例还是占了大头。所以，让城市高排放人口意识到是他们自身，而绝对不是低收入人口是日益增加的碳排放的主要贡献者；所以他们需要首先负担起但这种责任，这是社会公平性的体现，也是国家贯彻个人减排的切入点。

2. 会帮助营造一个健康和愉悦的和谐生活
追求碳平衡，过绿色的生活无疑会增加个人的生活满意程度，而且健康的生活习惯也会养成。同时，促进社区内团结，为茶余饭后提供真正有意义的谈资。

3. 长远来看，节能减排对国人也是经济的

目前，中国没有任何的减排责任，所以也就没有碳排放税。这意味着，个人不需要负担这笔额外的消费，比如汽油和航空碳排放税。但是如果说现在的温室气体排放趋势持续下去，在后京都时代，中国迟早会迫于压力或积极主动做负责任的大国而增加这个税项。其结果自然而然会是：国际上得到了声誉，而普通民众是最后买单的人，国家由节能减排损失的GDP也都会通过搜集民脂民膏弥补的。

we should have a common goal in our mind, because the Earth’s climate is what every country share in common, and to make the Earth ‘Carbon-Neutral’ should be our final believe.

But currently the work could not only be done through the regulated trading schemes, for example, the emissions which Kyoto offset only account for a modest 5 percent of the global total GHGs emissions.

To achieve the Earth’s carbon neutral, the target theoretically can be decomposed into smaller scales, try to imagine, if every country or region can be carbon-neutral, then the common goal will be realized. Countries like Norway and Costa Rica are planning to balance their GHGs emissions and be carbon-neutral by 2030 and 2050, respectively (PlanetArk, 2007a, b). Even some city such as Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), is also planning to built a zero-carbon city by 2009 (Janardhan, 2007). On a corporate scale, some corporations are planning or already achieve fully neutral such as HSBC, Google, Yahoo!, PepsiCo and so on(Wikipedia, 2008).

However, the cases for carbon-neutral country, city or company, are relative rare, because, as you have seen, they can be named using your fingers. Treaties, legislations and policies alone could not save the planet, and as the basic unit of the society, everyone will have a vital role to play in reducing the GHGs released into our atmosphere. Climate change has been also rooted into the public’s mind, no matter which class he is from, they want very much to stop global warming, while lots people are confused of how to efficiently getting involved in.

Carbon neutral hierarchy:
Earth ---> Country ---> City ---> Organisations ---> Household ---> Individuals

碳平衡 Carbon Neutral

「碳平衡」这个词被评选为新牛津美语字典的二零零六年的年度词汇，‘主要原因在於它已經從最初由環保人士倡導的一項概念，逐漸獲得越來越多民眾支持，並且成為受到美國政府當局所重視的實際綠化行動’。也有翻译成碳中和，碳守衡，甚至碳中立。不过理解了这个词的意思后，碳平衡应该是比较恰当的。

首先看一下字典中的原文解释

The New Oxford American Dictionary’s Word of the Year for 2006
Being carbon neutral involves calculating your total climate-damaging carbon emissions, reducing them where possible, and then balancing your remaining emissions, often by purchasing a carbon offset: paying to plant new trees or investing in “green” technologies such as solar and wind power.

‘达到碳平衡首先要计算你破坏气候的总碳排放，如果能减少尽量减少，剩余的已经不能再减的碳排放要通过其它方式平衡，通常是购买一定的碳补偿或碳抵消（carbon offsets）：例如植树造林或投资太阳能和风能等绿色技术'。其中的核心理念是确保我们进行的活动所涉的碳排放和碳吸收量相等，实现零碳排放，这样就不会给地球的气候增加负担。这条解释描述达到碳平衡的过程，比较偏重于个人或组织层次，比较通俗易懂的解释。

再看下在维基百科中的一段解释：

Being carbon neutral, or carbon neutrality, refers to neutral (meaning zero) total carbon release, brought about by balancing the amount of carbon released with the amount sequestered or offset. Various special interests attempt to promote a use of the term that refers to carbon reduction, which is clearly not neutral. In this more loose sense, it has two common uses:

It can refer to the practice of balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels, with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy, so that the carbon emissions are compensated, or alternatively using only renewable energies that don't produce any carbon dioxide (this last is called a post-carbon economy).

It is also used to describe the practice, criticized by some, of carbon offsetting, by paying others to remove or sequester 100% of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere – for example by planting trees – or by funding 'carbon projects' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions, or by buying carbon credits to remove (or 'retire') them through carbon trading. These practices are often used in parallel, together with energy conservation measures to minimize energy use. The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence.

这段解释强调碳平衡的这种状态，以及如何达到这种状态的两种途径：一是使用可更新能源替代化石燃料达到平衡；一是通过购买碳补偿或碳抵消（carbon offsets）。乍一看这个定义好像比较片面，仅仅强调替代或补偿而不首先考虑减少能源使用，其实仔细读过后其实也不能说它片面，定义中虽然没有提到这点，但是最后写道‘这两种途径通常是并行的与节能措施一齐来减少能源使用’。

所以综合说来，个人碳平衡是一种生活状态；达到碳平衡可以通过不排放任何碳来达到，使用纯绿色能源例如风能/太阳能，交通方式为步行或骑自行车等零排放方式。不过这种方式基本上很难很理想，因为现代人不可避免会排放碳；所以，如果你不能让自己做到零排放，那么就想办法让自己的排放减少，然后再通过其它方式如购买碳信用额来抵消自己的排放。不过需要强调的是，碳平衡的概念一定要体现 努力减少 这一点，不然讨论碳平衡就没有意义。因为人们会错误的认为可以照样排放，只要定期定量花点钱补偿一下就行了。
Source
OUP Blog USA
Wikipedia Carbon Neutral
文志靡開 lingspiration

农业/牧业用地赚取碳信用额 Carbon credit from agricultural land/rangeland

Case 1. 美国北部农业大省利用耕地／放牧地

Case 2. 新西兰退化耕地种植松红梅

Comvita to earn from manuka and carbon credits
http://nz.news.yahoo.com/080214/3/3zqc.html

[摘要］新西兰的蜂蜜制品公司 Comvita 准备利用恢复退化农用地使之变为manuka 灌木来获取碳信用点数，同时利用这种灌木产生花蜜。

Honey products company Comvita has entered an agreement with the aim of gaining income from carbon credits and manuka honey supply from reverting poor farmland to manuka bush.

Leptospermum scoparium (Manuka or Tea tree or just Leptospermum) is a shrub or small tree native to New Zealand and southeast Australia. It is found throughout New Zealand but is particularly common on the drier east coasts of the North Island and the South Island, and in Australia in Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. Manuka (from Māori 'mānuka') is the name used in New Zealand, and 'tea tree' is a common name in Australia and to a lesser extent also in New Zealand. This name arose because Captain Cook used the leaves to make a 'tea' drink. The common name "Tea Tree" is also shared with the related Melaleuca tree of Australia suggesting that both were used to make tea by Captain Cook. (Source Wikipedia)

航海业二氧化碳排放占全球总量的3.5%-Ship CO2 emissions at 3.5 pct of global total

[摘要] 2007年世界航海业的总排放达到11.2亿吨二氧化碳当量，大约全球总排放的3.5%,(another source claims 4.5 percent) 。根据国际海运组织IMO的最新报告。如果持续增长，国际海运在2020之前会增加30%，达到14.75亿吨二氧化碳当量。

不过海运这个比例的排放倒挺令人吃惊，因为之前IPCC就警告说海运的排放量会远高于航空。2002年航空总排放是4.92亿吨，2005年约7亿吨，约占总排放的 1.6-2%。外加非二氧化碳效应，航空业排放大概占全球的总排放要增加3-5倍,到2050年会达到全球总排放的5%。

目前，虽然航海和航空的排放增长很快，但是还没有并入到 京都议定书 下，因为把这些排放归类的每个国家的复杂性。

LONDON (Reuters) - Annual carbon dioxide emissions from world shipping reached 1.12 billion tonnes in 2007, about 3.5 percent of total global carbon emissions, a scientific report by the world's top maritime body shows. The report also showed that growing international seaborne trade and related fuel consumption will raise carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from ships by 30 percent to 1.475 billion tonnes by 2020.

Shipping and aviation emissions are rising rapidly but are not accounted for in the international Kyoto Protocol on global warming, because of the complexity of attributing these emissions to individual states. The U.N.'s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) last year said aviation CO2 emissions in 2002 were 492 million tonnes, far less than the IMO estimate of ship emissions even though the airline industry has come under far more scrutiny.

The new study by a group of experts was finalized by the U.N. International Maritime Organisation (IMO) in late December but only distributed to countries party to IMO regulations who met to set new pollution regulations last week.

来源 Source 路透社 Reuters

बसिक 航空业温室气体排放基础知识

[摘要]航空温室气体排放来自于航空燃料(jet kerosene and jet gasoline)和航空汽油。后者仅仅用在特殊发动机的机型，所占比例小于1%。

影响排放量的因素：
1 运行中航空器的数量和型号
2 飞行器发动机的类型和效率
3 使用的燃料
4 飞行的长度
5 动力参数设置
6 每段飞行的时间
7 飞行的高度

飞机的运行主要分为
1 起飞和降落， 10%的排放发生
2 空中飞行， 90%的排放发生

Emissions from aviation come from the combustion of jet fuel (jet kerosene and jet gasoline) and aviation gasoline (A fuel used only in small piston engine aircraft, and which generally represents less than 1 percent of fuel used in aviation).(IPCC 2006)

Emissions depend on the number and type of aircraft operations; the types and efficiency of the aircraft engines; the fuel used; the length of flight; the power setting; the time spent at each stage of flight; and, to a lesser degree, the altitude at which exhaust gases are emitted.

For the purpose of these guidelines, operations of aircraft are divided into
(1) Landing/Take-Off (LTO) cycle and
(2) Cruise.

Generally, about 10 percent of aircraft emissions of all types, except hydrocarbons and CO, are produced during airport ground level operations and during the LTO cycle15. The bulk of aircraft emissions (90 percent) occur at higher altitudes. For hydrocarbons and CO, the split is closer to 30 percent local emissions and 70 percent at higher altitudes (FAA, 2004).